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Razzismi: Dalle crociate al XX secolo
Il libro indaga le forme che il razzismo – inteso come pregiudizio concernente l’origine etnica dei popoli con relative politiche discriminatorie – ha preso nel corso della storia occidentale, dal Medioevo a oggi. Per l’autore il razzismo è un fenomeno relazionale, ossia il risultato di circostanze economiche o politiche specifiche. Nella storia europea vi sono tre svolte importanti: il momento delle crociate, di cui è un risvolto la discriminazione religiosa moderna dopo il Cinquecento, il momento delle scoperte geografiche e della mappatura delle civiltà, e il momento della costruzione delle società coloniali con le loro gerarchie, cui fa seguito il razzismo contemporaneo.
672 pages, Hardcover
First published January 1, 2013
31 people are currently reading
556 people want to read
About the author
Francisco Bethencourt
41 books24 followersFRANCISCO BETHENCOURT nasceu em Lisboa, em 1955. Licenciado em História, pela Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa, Mestre pela Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa e Doutorado em História e Civilização (1992) pelo Instituto Universitário Europeu em Florença, com a tese Les Inquisitions modernes. Foi Professor na Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa e visiting scholar em diversas universidades, como a Brown University (EUA), e a Universidade de São Paulo (Brasil). Actualmente é Charles Boxer Professor no King's College da Universidade de Londres. Foi ainda Director da Biblioteca Nacional (1996-1998) e Director do Centro Cultural Gulbenkian em Paris (1999-2004).
Dos seus interesses de investigação destacamos história do racismo no mundo atlântico; identidade portuguesa; história do mundo de língua portuguesa; história comparada da expansão europeia; história da Inquisição.
É autor de várias obras, entre outras, O imaginário da magia: feiticeiras, saludadores e nigromantes no século XVI (1987), História das Inquisições: Portugal, Espanha e Itália (Círculo de Leitores, 1994) e Racismos: das Cruzadas ao século XX (Temas & Debates, 2016). Coordenou ainda a colecção História da Expansão Portuguesa (com Kirti Chaudhuri, 5 vols., Círculo de Leitores, 1998-1999) e as obras A Memória da Nação (Sá da Costa, 1991), Racism and Ethnic Relations in the Portuguese-Speaking World (2012), Correspondence and cultural exchange in Europe, 1400-1700 (2013), Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400-1800 (2014), Inequality in the Portuguese-Speaking World Global and Historical Perspectives (2018) e Cosmopolitanism in the Portuguese-speaking world (2018).
Dos seus interesses de investigação destacamos história do racismo no mundo atlântico; identidade portuguesa; história do mundo de língua portuguesa; história comparada da expansão europeia; história da Inquisição.
É autor de várias obras, entre outras, O imaginário da magia: feiticeiras, saludadores e nigromantes no século XVI (1987), História das Inquisições: Portugal, Espanha e Itália (Círculo de Leitores, 1994) e Racismos: das Cruzadas ao século XX (Temas & Debates, 2016). Coordenou ainda a colecção História da Expansão Portuguesa (com Kirti Chaudhuri, 5 vols., Círculo de Leitores, 1998-1999) e as obras A Memória da Nação (Sá da Costa, 1991), Racism and Ethnic Relations in the Portuguese-Speaking World (2012), Correspondence and cultural exchange in Europe, 1400-1700 (2013), Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400-1800 (2014), Inequality in the Portuguese-Speaking World Global and Historical Perspectives (2018) e Cosmopolitanism in the Portuguese-speaking world (2018).
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Displaying 1 - 11 of 11 reviews
January 2, 2022
Francisco Bethencourt offers a detailed study on racism, which clearly reveals a pattern of political opportunism that explores tribalism deeply ingrained in all humans, from the ancient world to the modern age. It is well worth the read, and from it should sprout reforms to the teaching of history of a few countries that still teach a filtered version of their history (mine included).
Whilst somewhat detailed, being thought-provoking in an old subject and being quite revealing of the permanence of the banality of evil, I do find a few flaws in the work, namely a distinct lack of globality, and a few blind spots that make this work unable to stand on its own as the ultimate study on the global History of racism:
1 - Bethencourt sometimes focus on the most egregious case of racism with origin in "Western" culture for a given age, and glosses over the remaining civilizations for that time period.
2 - Whenever, in this historical-based narrative, an ethnicity becomes the victim of racism, we don't get to hear what racism they themselves practiced, and the extent of attrocities they themselves carried out, though instrumentalization of racism between tribes was one of the mechanisms of expansion during the colonial age, and often a society's racism was reinforced by instances where the minority's own racism towards the majority was instrumentalized by those seeking to fuel the majority's racism. Racism is a global phenomenon, a fuel of early primitive victors in the clash of human tribes for resources. Even in animals that live in communities, whichever element is perceived as an outsider is often brutally treated as if from another species. Though the author does make a clear effort to state there is racism outside of Europe, he often fails to seize opportunities to detail it, whenever european racist societies face less sofisticated forms of racism, either instrumentalizing it or briefly suffering from it.
3 - As a clear case of where the author fails to dwelve into non-European racism, it painted a much rosier picture of 2013 China than reality gave the author a right to do, ignoring Tibetan genocide, and systematic oppression of uyghurs was glossed over as "being discriminated against and having somewhat less rights" and "there's a project of han-icization", though just a year later in 2014 mass incarceration camps, mass steralization and organ harvest would begin to take place (until today). It also simply ignored the genocide against the religious minority of Falun Gong, and failed to detail the numerous state-enforced handicaps that non-Han peoples have to live through, failed to talk about China's modern day hokou caste system and, of course, neglected to tell the tales of europeans suffering under state-sponsored racist policies which forbid them from getting citizenship, accessing jobs, etc, as well as the several racist policies that drive the CCP to "out-smart" (legally undertcut and sponsor IP theft) and drive hate campaigns against foreign companies & citizens. I'm pretty sure a study into the Cultural Revolution which killed millions would find some ethinicities suffering more than others, though I can't blame Bethencourt for not carrying out that study himself.
4 - Racism in post-colonial societies is very much glossed over, and only the most egregious of genocides even gets a mention, though it is very much the norm even to this day (either between ethnicities of the same skin colour, or directed at non-native ethnicities). Particularly, wide-spread racism against mixed race and whites in some countries is ignored, as is the case of modern day South Africa, where the main party openly calls for the assassination of white farmers, which is being carried out for years now.
5 - Racism between minorities is, from what I remember, ignored.
6 - In the latter chapters, there's a clear political uncritical message that positive discrimination is a solution to racism (elevation of one ethnicity from its social classes in detriment of the remaining ethnicities of that social class, which though from a good place is counter-intuitive to the concept of justice and equality under the state), even going to the point of "disarming" arguments that adress difficulties of integration of migrant groups as "modern racism". Apart from the fact that political statements should have a very limited place in historical academia, this equalization is, in my view, particularly egregious, and one of the reason why racism is yet again becoming an useable instrument in politics, as differences and challenges in relationships of culture cannot be democratically debated without being stated as racism, and so, perceived problems solved. Both positive discrimation and silencing of non-racist critical debate about the modern challenges of multi-ethnics can be easily instrumentalized by this generation of racists, and this approach, which has nothing to do to with the academic discipline of History, is to be deeply frowned upon.
Whilst somewhat detailed, being thought-provoking in an old subject and being quite revealing of the permanence of the banality of evil, I do find a few flaws in the work, namely a distinct lack of globality, and a few blind spots that make this work unable to stand on its own as the ultimate study on the global History of racism:
1 - Bethencourt sometimes focus on the most egregious case of racism with origin in "Western" culture for a given age, and glosses over the remaining civilizations for that time period.
2 - Whenever, in this historical-based narrative, an ethnicity becomes the victim of racism, we don't get to hear what racism they themselves practiced, and the extent of attrocities they themselves carried out, though instrumentalization of racism between tribes was one of the mechanisms of expansion during the colonial age, and often a society's racism was reinforced by instances where the minority's own racism towards the majority was instrumentalized by those seeking to fuel the majority's racism. Racism is a global phenomenon, a fuel of early primitive victors in the clash of human tribes for resources. Even in animals that live in communities, whichever element is perceived as an outsider is often brutally treated as if from another species. Though the author does make a clear effort to state there is racism outside of Europe, he often fails to seize opportunities to detail it, whenever european racist societies face less sofisticated forms of racism, either instrumentalizing it or briefly suffering from it.
3 - As a clear case of where the author fails to dwelve into non-European racism, it painted a much rosier picture of 2013 China than reality gave the author a right to do, ignoring Tibetan genocide, and systematic oppression of uyghurs was glossed over as "being discriminated against and having somewhat less rights" and "there's a project of han-icization", though just a year later in 2014 mass incarceration camps, mass steralization and organ harvest would begin to take place (until today). It also simply ignored the genocide against the religious minority of Falun Gong, and failed to detail the numerous state-enforced handicaps that non-Han peoples have to live through, failed to talk about China's modern day hokou caste system and, of course, neglected to tell the tales of europeans suffering under state-sponsored racist policies which forbid them from getting citizenship, accessing jobs, etc, as well as the several racist policies that drive the CCP to "out-smart" (legally undertcut and sponsor IP theft) and drive hate campaigns against foreign companies & citizens. I'm pretty sure a study into the Cultural Revolution which killed millions would find some ethinicities suffering more than others, though I can't blame Bethencourt for not carrying out that study himself.
4 - Racism in post-colonial societies is very much glossed over, and only the most egregious of genocides even gets a mention, though it is very much the norm even to this day (either between ethnicities of the same skin colour, or directed at non-native ethnicities). Particularly, wide-spread racism against mixed race and whites in some countries is ignored, as is the case of modern day South Africa, where the main party openly calls for the assassination of white farmers, which is being carried out for years now.
5 - Racism between minorities is, from what I remember, ignored.
6 - In the latter chapters, there's a clear political uncritical message that positive discrimination is a solution to racism (elevation of one ethnicity from its social classes in detriment of the remaining ethnicities of that social class, which though from a good place is counter-intuitive to the concept of justice and equality under the state), even going to the point of "disarming" arguments that adress difficulties of integration of migrant groups as "modern racism". Apart from the fact that political statements should have a very limited place in historical academia, this equalization is, in my view, particularly egregious, and one of the reason why racism is yet again becoming an useable instrument in politics, as differences and challenges in relationships of culture cannot be democratically debated without being stated as racism, and so, perceived problems solved. Both positive discrimation and silencing of non-racist critical debate about the modern challenges of multi-ethnics can be easily instrumentalized by this generation of racists, and this approach, which has nothing to do to with the academic discipline of History, is to be deeply frowned upon.
May 16, 2018
The widespread scope of Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century, stretching over both time and place, renders it a comprehensive study of the different forms of racism that have evolved over the centuries in relation to a vast range of people. Prof. Francisco Bethencourt, the Charles Boxer Professor of History at King’s College London, adopts a long-term, cross-continental approach to unpacking the history of prejudice concerning ethnic descent, which has been made manifest in a variety of forms of discriminatory action. A key contention of the author’s is that the (pseudo-) scientific classification of races did not precede the taking of negative actions by some races or ethnic groups against others that they regarded as inferior, but that the underlying prejudice was present at a far earlier stage, as can be seen in the behavior and output of the societies concerned. While his main focus is on the Western world, from the Middle Ages to the modern day, Prof. Bethencourt also debates, at some length, the nature of racism in widely diverse parts of Africa, including Rwanda, Namibia and Angola, spending some time on discussing the apartheid regime in South Africa. Neither is the western hemisphere the sole zone of his detailed analysis of racisms and their multiple forms, as he relates how the topographical structure of settlements in China also exemplified a form of ethnic segregation and discrimination.
Prof. Bethencourt’s interrogation of his subject is well signposted throughout Racisms, which is clearly divided into five main sections, centering on the following main topics: the Crusades; oceanic exploration; colonial societies; the theories of race; and nationalism and beyond. At key points in the text, he asks the questions that motivated his research into that particular part of his study, which not only clarifies the direction that he takes, but which also enables the reader to assess whether he does, indeed, fulfil his own intentions. Although Prof. Bethencourt’s writings are grounded in academia, Racisms is a highly accessible and lively account that should appeal to a wide audience—a work that, while not being too sophisticated for the average person to read and appreciate for the multiple insights that it provides, makes for just as worthy an undergraduate text.
Racisms is well illustrated with black-and-white photographs and numerous maps that clearly indicate the geographical areas covered in the text, including Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe. The work should be of interest to those concerned with cultural, social and political history, as well as to all human rights advocates and supporters who wish to see their central concern in historical perspective. In providing invaluable insights into movements that are pivotal to the evolution of human society, Prof. Bethencourt pays a great deal of attention to how certain cultural objects, ranging from book illustrations to paintings and sculptures, have reflected the stereotyping of other races that has helped lead to them being regarded as worthy of contempt and disparagement. Art historians are, therefore, also likely to find this monograph of value.
Prof. Bethencourt ends Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century on a salutary note: “In sum, there is still a considerable way to go to realize the dream of human dignity and the real implementation of human rights.” Indeed, such might still be a dream, but one that has been made a great deal more tangible and practicable through the publishing of this incisive volume.
Prof. Bethencourt’s interrogation of his subject is well signposted throughout Racisms, which is clearly divided into five main sections, centering on the following main topics: the Crusades; oceanic exploration; colonial societies; the theories of race; and nationalism and beyond. At key points in the text, he asks the questions that motivated his research into that particular part of his study, which not only clarifies the direction that he takes, but which also enables the reader to assess whether he does, indeed, fulfil his own intentions. Although Prof. Bethencourt’s writings are grounded in academia, Racisms is a highly accessible and lively account that should appeal to a wide audience—a work that, while not being too sophisticated for the average person to read and appreciate for the multiple insights that it provides, makes for just as worthy an undergraduate text.
Racisms is well illustrated with black-and-white photographs and numerous maps that clearly indicate the geographical areas covered in the text, including Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe. The work should be of interest to those concerned with cultural, social and political history, as well as to all human rights advocates and supporters who wish to see their central concern in historical perspective. In providing invaluable insights into movements that are pivotal to the evolution of human society, Prof. Bethencourt pays a great deal of attention to how certain cultural objects, ranging from book illustrations to paintings and sculptures, have reflected the stereotyping of other races that has helped lead to them being regarded as worthy of contempt and disparagement. Art historians are, therefore, also likely to find this monograph of value.
Prof. Bethencourt ends Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century on a salutary note: “In sum, there is still a considerable way to go to realize the dream of human dignity and the real implementation of human rights.” Indeed, such might still be a dream, but one that has been made a great deal more tangible and practicable through the publishing of this incisive volume.
July 23, 2020
Livro muito abrangente sobre o Racismo na história da humanidade. Apesar de ser um assunto bastante atual, o livro prova a existência do Racismo desde as mais remotas civilizações.
O núcleo da teoria é de que preconceitos são utilizados contra determinados grupos para justificar segregação e outras ações discriminatórias. E sempre isso é feito com alguma estratégia política.
O livro atravessa séculos e viaja o mundo demonstrando as variações de como tudo ocorreu. Quando nas civilizações originais, Europa e arredores, seguido pela expansão colonial, ao meu ver a época em que o Racismo teve sua maior evolução, firmando-se na cultura mundial.
A face mais brutal se mostra com o fim do imperialismo e o surgimento das democracias que, não obstante a noção de igualdade trazia das revoluções, faz emergir a necessidade da identidade da "nação". Nesse contexto, projetos ultra-nacionalistas, como o Nazismo, retomam preconceitos fundados em ascendência e supremacia branca, causando genocídios que mancharam a história da humanidade.
Para quem gosta de história, e se interessa pelas questões de racismo, vale muito a pena a leitura. A obra busca exaurir todos os fatos ligados ao Racismo. Pode ser cansativo em determinados momentos. Mas é compensador.
O núcleo da teoria é de que preconceitos são utilizados contra determinados grupos para justificar segregação e outras ações discriminatórias. E sempre isso é feito com alguma estratégia política.
O livro atravessa séculos e viaja o mundo demonstrando as variações de como tudo ocorreu. Quando nas civilizações originais, Europa e arredores, seguido pela expansão colonial, ao meu ver a época em que o Racismo teve sua maior evolução, firmando-se na cultura mundial.
A face mais brutal se mostra com o fim do imperialismo e o surgimento das democracias que, não obstante a noção de igualdade trazia das revoluções, faz emergir a necessidade da identidade da "nação". Nesse contexto, projetos ultra-nacionalistas, como o Nazismo, retomam preconceitos fundados em ascendência e supremacia branca, causando genocídios que mancharam a história da humanidade.
Para quem gosta de história, e se interessa pelas questões de racismo, vale muito a pena a leitura. A obra busca exaurir todos os fatos ligados ao Racismo. Pode ser cansativo em determinados momentos. Mas é compensador.
This entire review has been hidden because of spoilers.
June 9, 2021
This is a compreehensive study on different types of prejudices and racisms throughout Humanity's history.
The goal of the author was to show that racism has had a basis more on political/social interests than on a theory of races.
Starting on the Classic Antiquity until the most obvious cases of the Holocaust or institucionalized segregation in USA or South Africa, we get a view on how prejudice and discrimination was used to ensure that some persons were deemed inferior in order to maintain a given status quo.
This could be either to justify the discrimination of occupied territories (e.g.: on the first great empires or on the european colonization).
We also see that discrimination could be based on skin color, religion, culturar customs and even occupations (common within caste systems).
Not denying that there's always a base prejudice for all of this, what is concluded here it's that the actual discrimination perpretated within society towards a group is usually sponsored by the ruling bodies to ensure a certain level of dominance towards a group.
After reading this, it's amazing how human society, with all of it's changes and evolutions (and revolutions) still hasn't left behind these attitudes.
The goal of the author was to show that racism has had a basis more on political/social interests than on a theory of races.
Starting on the Classic Antiquity until the most obvious cases of the Holocaust or institucionalized segregation in USA or South Africa, we get a view on how prejudice and discrimination was used to ensure that some persons were deemed inferior in order to maintain a given status quo.
This could be either to justify the discrimination of occupied territories (e.g.: on the first great empires or on the european colonization).
We also see that discrimination could be based on skin color, religion, culturar customs and even occupations (common within caste systems).
Not denying that there's always a base prejudice for all of this, what is concluded here it's that the actual discrimination perpretated within society towards a group is usually sponsored by the ruling bodies to ensure a certain level of dominance towards a group.
After reading this, it's amazing how human society, with all of it's changes and evolutions (and revolutions) still hasn't left behind these attitudes.
December 6, 2021
Bethencourt's book is probably best described as comprehensive, describing racism (as the subtitle says) worldwide from the Crusades to the 20th Century. As a result, one can see that racism varies greatly across time and space. Coverage appeared remarkably uniform, with no region or era getting more space than it would merit due to duration, area, and/or future impact (though I wished to see more coverage of the recent Balkan conflict). Though the writing is easy to follow, it is still dry; Bethencourt does not bring the history to life.
November 4, 2022
Resumo: as diferentes formas de diferenciação entre raças tem servido apenas para fins político-sociais. Começa desde do tempo da inquisição com enormes impunidades e discriminação até as datas de hoje, em que apesar do racismo já não ter mais apoio das leis, existem regras "não escritas" que continuam a perpetuar a supressão de minorias e teres características diferentes das massas para servir a interesses de grupos.
É uma leitura massiva, com muita e diversa informação e isso as vezes faz com que nos percamos na leitura.
É uma leitura massiva, com muita e diversa informação e isso as vezes faz com que nos percamos na leitura.
November 2, 2020
Estudo importante sobre o racismo. Inicialmente repete informações e imagens e se torna maçante em alguns trechos. A partir, porém, da inquisição + era colonial há, junto com as informações, uma série de reflexões importantes. A tese de que o racismo está sempre atrelado a um projeto político é interessante, mas não inteiramente comprovada como pretende o autor. É mais certo dizer que o racismo, já existente, é aproveitado por projetos políticos e não que ele nasce como parte de um.
February 13, 2021
Il saggio é in grado di percorrere l'evoluzione delle varie forme di razzismo che si sono sviluppate nel corso dei secoli in modo molto chiaro.
La scrittura é molto scorrevole e viene sempre data abbastanza contestualizzazione storica per aiutare la comprensione, ma senza mai perdersi in dettagli inutili.
La scrittura é molto scorrevole e viene sempre data abbastanza contestualizzazione storica per aiutare la comprensione, ma senza mai perdersi in dettagli inutili.
June 24, 2025
أغرب ما في هذا الكتاب على أهميته هو تجاهله الحديث عن الصهيونية كحركة عنصرية، وعن جرائمها من تطهير عرقي، وفصل عنصري، وتهجير قسري، وارتكاب مذابح جماعية بحق الشعب الفلسطيني. وهو بهذا يتجاهل واجدة من أهم القضايا الحية والمعاشة حتى الآن.
September 28, 2022
Very academic and dry. Did not want to finish.
July 24, 2017
Apesar de ter demorado 2 meses a lê-lo, foram 2 meses bem empregues. A análise que faz da evolução da visão do outro, do preconceito, e a chegada à teoria das raças, passando pelos mais bárbaros actos que se fizeram, em toda a Humanidade, contra seres humanos... É uma análise bastante pertinente, que faz avaliar os nossos próprios preconceitos, como muitos são moldados pela sociedade, e qual a sua raiz. Num momento em que, mais que tudo, é preciso acolher o outro, aconselho sem dúvida esta leitura, que de resto serviu de ponto de partida para uma exposição que se encontra patente no Padrão dos Descobrimentos, em Belém (Lisboa).
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